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°úÇаú öÇÐÀÇ °æ°è¸¦ ³Ñ¾î: ¾ÆÀν´Å¸ÀÎÀÇ °úÇлç»ó
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°úÇаú öÇÐÀÇ °æ°è¸¦ ³Ñ¾î: ¾ÆÀν´Å¸ÀÎÀÇ °úÇлç»ó
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Âü°í¹®Çå
Darrigol, Olivier. 2004 ¡°The Mystery of the Einstein-Poincare Connection,¡± Isis 95: 614-26.
Einstein, Albert. 1979. Autobiographical Notes. LaSalle and Chicago, Illinois. Open Court Publishing Company.
Einstein, Albert. 1987. Albert Einstein Letters to Solovine, with an Introduction by Maurice Solovine. New York. Philosophical Library.
Holton, Gerald. 1998. "Einstein and the Cultural Roots of Modern Science." Daedalus 127: 1-44,
Howard, Don. 2005. ¡°Einstein as a Philosopher of Science¡± Physics Today (December): 34-40.
Norton, John. 2005. "How Hume and Mach Helped Einstein Find Special Relativity." ms in http://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/papers/HumeMach.pdf
Pyenson, Lewis. 1980. "Einstein's Education: Mathematics and the Laws of Nature." Isis 71: 399-425.
Transcending the Demarcation Between Science and Philosophy: Einstein¡¯s Scientific Thoughts
Hong Sungook
Seoul National University, Interdisciplinary Program in History and Philosophy of Science
PDF version
People commonly believe physics and philosophy are very different fields of study; however, they bear a striking resemblance in their methodologies, not to mention having overlapping subject matters of interest. Physics and philosophy are interested in similar questions. What is reality? How can the laws of nature discovered by the physicist become universal? How can the consistency between experimental data and theory be explained? What is the intrinsic nature of space and time? What are the conditions of human recognition regarding the outside world? How much is modern science really offering in terms of a true understanding of the world? What kind of ethics do scientists have regarding their own research? Instead of pursuing the answers to these questions independently, answers that are remarkably more significant can be reached if both sides work together and share their critical thoughts through dialog. Einstein enlightens us to the useful interaction that unfolds between physics and philosophy.
Einstein¡¯s ¡°Scientific Philosophy¡±
In Einstein¡¯s letter written to his lifelong friend, Maurice Solovin, in 1952, he drew a diagram of his personal philosophy regarding science (Diagram 1). The variable ¡°E¡± refers to the variety of immediate sense-experiences we possess, ¡°A¡± refers to the system of axioms of physics, and ¡°S,¡± ¡°S¡¯,¡± and ¡°S¡±,¡± refer to resultant propositions in axiomatic systems.
Einstein¡¯s diagram of a scientific system.
The interesting point is the relationship that exists between E, A, and S. In the axiomatic system A, the process of introducing the theoretical S¡¯s is dialectical. In this regard, Einstein agreed with other scientific philosophers who stressed the dialectical makeup of science. However, Einstein viewed the connections between E and A (construction of axioms on the ground of experience) as an intuitive process, not a logical process. The relationship between supposition S and data E is more interesting. Einstein contended that the relationship between S and E was intuitive, not dialectic (verification and possible falsification of resultant propositions); he thought the relationship between S and E was extremely ¡°less¡± logical than the relationship between E and A. The relationship between S and E was less clear than the relationship between E and A, not to mention the relationship between A and S. Einstein said this diagram depicted well the ¡°troublesome connection between the abstract world and the experienced world.¡± All the corresponding relationships between the experienced world and theoretical propositions- not to mention the process where axiomatic systems are introduced into the experienced world- could not be explained as logical processes.
Einstein¡¯s ideas regarding this matter are expressed well in Autobiographical Notes, which he wrote in 1946 when he was sixty-seven years old. He begins his autobiography with an explanation of thoughts, ideas, knowledge, and conceptual schemes. He stresses the true nature of scientific thinking is the ¡°free play with concepts.¡± He continues to question-- if scientific thinking was this free, how could it be true? Einstein discovers the answer to this question at the point where senses (or the world we sense) and scientific concepts concur. However, the problem is not solved here. If a scientific truth is discovered where the world of sensation and concepts conform, how could scientific thinking be free? In the end, he found the answer in the intuitive- not logical- relationship that existed between concepts and sensational experiences. According to Einstein¡¯s scientific point of view, the relationship between the ideas and the experienced world can be vague and clear. Merely, when this relationship is very clear, we call this ¡°truth.¡± For Einstein, scientific truth was determined by the authenticity of the relationship.
Einstein discriminated between something that was logically correct and something that was scientifically true. Einstein referred to this by saying, ¡°A system has truth-content according to the certainty and completeness of its co-ordination-possibility to the totality of experience. A correct proposition borrows its 'truth' from the truth-content of the system to which it belongs.¡± The crux of Einstein¡¯s thinking stated that the domains where logic is at work is restricted within the limits of the process of creating resultant propositions from the system of axioms, and the process of creating the system of axioms or the decision-making stage on deciding the co-ordination between theory and data are all achieved according to the decisions which are intuitive and made based on probability.
Einstein¡¯s Philosophical Interest
Einstein grew interested in philosophy at an early age. During his junior high and high school days, thanks to Max Talmey, who was living at his house, Einstein started to gain academic interest in science and philosophy. Talmey encouraged Einstein to read Kant¡¯s work and by the time he was a teenager, he had already read Kant¡¯s three critiques- Critique of Pure Reason, Critique of Practical Reason, and Critique of Judgment. During this time of Einstein¡¯s life, Kant¡¯s philosophy was engraved in his heart. Kant accepted Newton¡¯s ideas of absolute time and absolute space, and developing on these ideas, he asserted that we had a transcendental knowledge; later, Einstein criticized these ideas and advocated the relativity of space and time, denying their absoluteness.
While Einstein attended the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH), contrary to popular beliefs, Einstein did not study mathematics or theoretical physics very diligently. He was more interested in experimental physics, and when he wasn¡¯t in the lab conducting experiments, he was absorbed with philosophy and the philosophy of science. While studying at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Einstein read Ernst Mach¡¯s Science of Mechanics (1883) and Popular Scientific Lectures (1896); Arthur Schopenhauer¡¯s Parerga und Paralipomena (1851) (or Little Philosophical Writings); Friedrich Albert Lange¡¯s The History of Materialism (1873); Eugen Dühring¡¯s Kritische Geschichte der ailgemeinen Principien der Mechanik or Historical Critique of the Principle of Mechanics (1872); and Ferdinand Rosenberger¡¯s Isaac Newton and His Physical Principles (1895). As the titles of these books suggest, these books posed philosophical questions while pertaining to natural science. In addition to this self-learning achieved through books, Einstein took Professor August Stadler¡¯s class on Kant and a class on ¡°theories on scientific thinking.¡±
Conrad Habicht , Maurice Solovine, and Albert Einstein- founding members of the Olympia Academy
Einstein¡¯s interest in philosophy grew more profound as he got a job as a low-level clerk in a patent office in Bern Switzerland. While working at the patent office, he along with Conrad Habicht and Maurice Solovine, founded the ¡°Olympia Academy,¡± which was a reading and debate club. They read science and philosophy books and met once a week and held long discussions; Einstein recalled those days in Bern saying, ¡°We had an incredibly fun time at the academy in Bern.¡± Along with Einstein, the members of the Olympia Academy read and discussed Richard Avenarius¡¯ Critique of Pure Experience (1888); Richard Dedekind¡¯s What are Numbers and What Should They Be? (1893); English experimental philosopher David Hume¡¯s A Treatise of Human Nature (1739); Ernst Mach¡¯s The Analysis of Sensations (1900) and the Development of Mechanics (1883); John Stuart Mill¡¯s A System of Logic (1843); Karl Pearson¡¯s The Grammar of Science (1900); Henri Poincar顯s Science and Hypothesis (1901); and Spinoza¡¯s Ethics. They did not admire scientific theses filled with complex calculations— they admired philosophical works regarding science and recognition.
Einstein once revealed that reading these philosophical books played the decisive role in discovering the theory of relativity. In a letter written to philosopher Moritz Schlick, he writes that without delving into Kant and Hume, ¡°I would not have been able to reach the solution to the theory of relativity.¡± Kant and Hume propelled Einstein to question Newton¡¯s theory of absolute space and time, which he had believed was true for a long time. Furthermore, Einstein, who was skeptical of Newton¡¯s theory of absolute space and time, was able to arrive at the special theory of relativity through his perception that time was relative; this kind of thinking was developed through the books he had read and the discussions that took place at the Olympia Academy. Einstein and his friends at the academy encountered the innovative idea of ¡°simultaneity¡± and the measurement of time in Henri Poincar顯s Science and Hypothesis. Poincaré wrote, ¡°We cannot know through direct intuition that the space between two times is the same; not only this, but also we cannot know intuitively that two events occurring in a different region occur at the same time.¡± He added, ¡°The simultaneity of the two events or in other words, the sequence in which these two events occur and the equality of the interval between two times must be defined in the simplest expression of physical laws.¡± The ¡°local time¡± suggested by physicist Hendrik A. Lorentz (1853-1928) was not merely a mathematical and imaginary time— it possessed physical significance and was a time that could be measured through a watch. This conclusion was very similar to the conclusions reached by Einstein in the thesis he wrote in 1905. Kant, Hume, Mach, and Poincaré were the philosophical ¡°adhesives¡± that allowed Einstein to create the remarkable system known as the special theory of relativity which was the culmination of Einstein¡¯s struggle with questions of physics including electromagnetic induction, the movement of light, and ether.
Einstein¡¯s View of the Relationship between Philosophy and Science
Einstein often revealed his position regarding the importance of philosophy. He criticized fellow scientists who ignored the questions of epistemology. He explained the importance of epistemology in the following manner:
When I think about the best students I¡¯ve had in class¡¦ When I think about the students who were great independent thinkers instead of being merely bright, I discovered they were very interested in the theory of knowledge. They viewed the discussion regarding the purpose and method of science as simply the starting point; through adamantly advocating their point of view, they revealed that epistemology was critical to their subject matters.
Furthermore, in 1944, responding to a physicist who asked whether it was necessary to teach students scientific philosophy, while praising scientific philosophy and the history of science, Einstein explained why philosophical insight was so important in the following manner:
I completely agree with you regarding the importance and educational value of historical science and the philosophy of science, not to mention scientific methodology. These days, many people including professional scientist do not look at the forest but simply observe the thousands of trees. If one has a historical and philosophical background, one can separate oneself from the biases to which the majority of scientist living in the same era unwittingly fall prey. The independent mind created through this kind of philosophical insight, is the milestone that separates the everyday scientists or professional from the person who genuinely pursues the truth.
Einstein viewed problems in a different way from other scientists in the domain of physics, and he solved these problems in a manner other people could not have solved. Grounded in classical physics, other scientists attempted to solve problems using various hypotheses, but Einstein discarded the framework accepted for hundreds of years and boldly proposed a new framework. He was able to do this because he believed a certain kind of ¡°unity¡± existed behind the chaotic phenomena of nature. During difficult times when Einstein could not find a job after graduating from college, he wrote a letter to his friend, Marcel Grossmann, revealing his faith in the unity of nature. He wrote, ¡°It is a wonderful feeling to recognize the unity of a complex of phenomena that to direct observation appear to be quite separate things." He was able to marvel at the unity of nature from an early age because of the philosophical books that had him look at the forest instead of trees.
REFERENCES
Darrigol, Olivier. 2004 ¡°The Mystery of the Einstein-Poincare Connection,¡± Isis 95: 614-26.
Einstein, Albert. 1979. Autobiographical Notes. LaSalle and Chicago, Illinois. Open Court Publishing Company.
Einstein, Albert. 1987. Albert Einstein Letters to Solovine, with an Introduction by Maurice Solovine. New York. Philosophical Library.
Holton, Gerald. 1998. "Einstein and the Cultural Roots of Modern Science." Daedalus 127: 1-44,
Howard, Don. 2005. ¡°Einstein as a Philosopher of Science¡± Physics Today (December): 34-40.
Norton, John. 2005. "How Hume and Mach Helped Einstein Find Special Relativity." ms in http://www.pitt.edu/~jdnorton/papers/HumeMach.pdf
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